Although Victor Turners writings have proved fruitful for fields beyond anthropology, his definition of ritual is overly restrictive. Ritual, he says, is prescribed formal behavior for occasions not given over to technological routine, having reference to beliefs in mystical beings or powers. Technological routine refers to the means by which a social group provides for its material needs. Turners differentiating ritual from technology helps us recognize that festivals and celebrations may have little purpose other than play, but it obscures the practical aims, such as making crops grow or healing patients, of other rituals. Further, Turners definition implies a necessary relationship between ritual and mystical beliefs. However, not all rituals are religious; some religions have no reference to mystical beings; and individuals may be required only to participate in, not necessarily believe in, a ritual. Turners assumption that ritual behavior follows belief thus limits the usefulness of his definition in studying ritual across cultures.

　　24. According to the passage, which of the following does Turner exclude from his conception of ritual?

　　 Behavior based on beliefs

　　 Behavior based on formal rules

　　 Celebrations whose purpose is play

　　 Routines directed toward practical ends

　　 Festivals honoring supernatural beings

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