注：1.causal 原因的，因果关系的

　　2.三种推理方式：从原因到结果、从结果到原因、从结果到原因再到另一个结果，第三种更重要

　　3.extensive 广泛的，来自extend延伸 extensive reading 泛读

　　4.In other words 换而言之 a succession of 一系列

　　5.本段讲关系链

　　Causes are classified as necessary, sufficient, or contributory(起辅助作用的). A necessary cause is one which must be present for the effect to occur, as combustion ，is necessary to drive a gasoline engine. A sufficient cause is one which can produce an effect unaided , though there may be more than one sufficient cause: a dead battery is enough to keep a car from starting, but faulty spark plugs(火花塞)or an empty gas tank will have the same effect. A contributory cause is one which helps to produce an effect but cannot do so by itself, as running through a red light may help cause an accident, though other factors --- pedestrians or other cars in the intersection-must also be present.

　　注：intersection 交叉路口 inter+section

　　In establishing or refuting a causal relation it is usually necessary to show the process by which the alleged cause produces the effect. Such an explanation is called a causal process.

　　注：在证实或驳斥因果关系需要把推理过程显示出来，如灯灭了，牛奶变酸：灯灭了-停电-冰箱不工作-温度上升-牛奶变酸

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