school. In some cases, he gave students incentives based on input,

　　like reading certain books, while in others, the incentives were based

　　on output, like results on exams. His main finding was that incentives

　　increased achievement when based on input but had no effect when

　　based on output. Fryer's conclusion was that the incentives for inputs

　　might be more effective because students do not know how to do

　　better on an exam, aside from general rules like “study harder”. Reading certain books, on the other hand, is a well­set task over

　　which they have much more control.

　　As long as you have direct control over your goal, you have a

　　much higher chance of success. And it's easier to start again if you

　　fail, because you know exactly what you need to do.

　　If you want to cut down on your spending, a good goal would be

　　making morning coffee at home instead of going to a café，

　　for

　　example. This is a well­specified action­based goal for which you can

　　measure your success easily. Spending less money isn't a goal because

　　it's too general. Similarly, if you want to spend more time with your

　　family, don't stop with this general wish. Think about an actionable

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